PC Blog 3-em waves [blackmon@pivotalconceptsinscience.com] Introduction Faraday conceived of lines of force, Maxwell’s equations were formulated, and Hertz’s experiments supporting Maxwell’s electromagnetic wave were conducted before the discovery of the electron. The model for electromagnetic radiation derived from Faraday’s experiments, associated with Maxwell’s work, is an influence composed of alternating electric and magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each other and propagated at c through space (Fig. 20 A). [But what, precisely, is it that is traveling and why at c? These questions are similar to pondering the composition of Huygens wavelets (Fig. 4 C). A graphical plot of a wave function as presented in Fig. 20 A is not a pictorial representation of the physical event to which it is applied.] The focus of Blog 3 is a comparison of Maxwell’s model (Fig. 20 A) with the pulson model (Fig. 20 B) as the mediators of signals classified as electromagnetic radiation. Since the discovery of the electron and proton, the origins of currents, magnetic fields, electrostatic fields, and electromagnetic signals have been associated with charges. Faraday’s Radio Presented in Fig. 21 A is a representation of an apparatus utilized by Faraday to conduct a key experiment relevant to understanding electromagnetic radiation. When the switch, S, of the primary circuit was closed, a flick of the galvanometer needle was observed, indicating a momentary current in the secondary coil, C, at the instant when the current in the primary coil was turned on. Thereafter, the needle went back to zero. However, when the switch in the primary was open, a sudden deflection in the galvanometer occurred in the opposite direction. Thus, Faraday observed that the primary coil , A, could induce current in the secondary coil, C, only at the moment when current in the primary was changing. A steady current in the primary had no detectable effect on the secondary coil. Later experiments showed that although the iron core enhanced the intensity, it could be removed and the same responses obtained. The apparatus, usually recognized as a transformer, in Fig. 21 A is in essence analogous to an elementary wireless radio set. The galvanometer acts as the signal detector. (Within the observed sequence of events, what accounts for the differences in stimuli at the galvanometer?) Hertz’s Radio A schematic of the components of Hertz’s experiment (Fig. 21 B) in which he identified phenomena that supported the existence of Maxwell’s electromagnetic wave (Fig. 20 A) may be visualized as a variation of Faraday’s experiment presented in Fig. 21 A. An enhancement of the electro potential between the circuit sections separated by the small spheres was increased utilizing an induction coil until a spark was observed to jump the gap in the transmitter. [Until the spark jump occurs, manifestations of the electrostatic fields between the two spheres at the boundaries of the gap should resemble those represented in C-Fig. 7 A for two unlike separated charges.] When the spark discharges across the gap, it signals the sudden rush of electrons from one ball to the other, creating an excess of charge on the opposite side. There follows another discharge in the reverse direction and charges rush back and forth until equilibrium has been reestablished, at which time the induction coils creates another potential difference between the two spheres, repeating the process. Under appropriate conditions the gap of a detection coil, fashioned as shown in Fig. 21 B, could be made to spark when the transmitter was in a sparking condition. [An oscillating, sparking series in the secondary circuit (transmitter) implies an alternating current associated with an alternating inducing signal that is transmitted to the detector.] By measuring the wavelength and frequency of the radiation, Hertz was able to determine its speed. It turned out to be c. This is the same speed Maxwell had predicted for his displacement wave (Fig. 20 A). Further manipulations reveal the phenomenon possesses properties like that of light, i.e. refraction, polarization, and reflection. [The associated visible electromagnetic radiation, i.e. the spark, is not the signal carrier between transmitter and receiver. However, its frequency (interval between sparks) indicates the frequency of the non visible, communicating signal. Given that both signals are electromagnetic radiations and associated with electrons, what is the explanation for their different frequencies?] An enigma surrounds the mechanism creating the oscillation over shoots of electrons. Why do electrons continue to jump the gap after the initial point where equal numbers are present on each side of the circuit? For the experimental design of Fig. 21 B, would the average potential for each side after sparking had decreased, before the initiation of the next induction cycle, be neutral as it was before the initiation of the experiment, or do both sides of the transmitter become charged? If the induction coil of the secondary circuit could be instantaneously disconnected from the transmitter at the initiation of the sparking process, would it impact the duration of the sparking episodes? Conductors and facilitated electron drift Within the interstices of an isolated, non-magnetized conductor some of its electrons move among an array of positive charges tending toward a neutral distribution of charges. During the process, emitted signals, if they exist, are very weak with respect to devices currently utilized to detect electromagnetic radiation. However, if opposite ends of a conductor are connected to the terminals of a battery such that a conductive pathway is established between low and high concentrations of electrons, a facilitated movement of electrons occurs from the high concentrations toward the deficit electrode. The description, facilitated drift, is utilized because the enhanced, directional movements of electrons cannot be explained utilizing the typical diffusion process. Within COM, facilitated drift is associated with the formation of the tandem stack (Fig. 22) that is more stable at lower temperatures where conductivity is increased. Thus under parameters where the rate of diffusion would be decreased, directional electron drift is enhanced. Superconductivity occurs under conditions where the tandem stack associations should become stable (See G. Electrical and magnetic properties at low temperatures in V-II. Structures and Function Associated with the Electron and Proton of <critonoscillator.com>) and tandem stack associations have been proposed as the mechanism creating the stable current loops in super conductors and permanent magnets upon which their magnetic properties depend (Fig. 23 C-2 and C-Fig. 6 A&B). As noted, the translational movement of free electrons is associated with a perpendicular circulation of their criton swirls such that a clockwise rotation would be observed as electrons approach the observer (Fig. 22 A). This orientation for swirl rotation has been proposed to account for the magnetic fields associated with current in a wire that settles into a uniform pattern where the direction of electron flow is held constant (Fig. 22 B at t = 3 and Fig. 23 A). When the conductor is fabricated into a coil, the reference magnetic field pattern of a magnet is created (C-Fig. 6 and Fig. 23 B). When a core of non-magnetized, ferromagnetic material is inserted within the coil it is immersed in the internal field of the coils. The core in situ acquires a polarity that matches that of the surrounding coil and it enhances the strength of the magnetic field (Fig. 23 B-2). When the core is removed it exhibits the properties of a magnet; i.e. its induced magnetic field is retained (Fig. 23 B-3). [As noted the magnetic fields of an electron and that surrounding a current carrying wire are structurally different from that of the reference magnet (Fig. 22 A, Fig. 23 and C-Fig. 6). Nature of the signal associated with current induction When electron drift patterns are abruptly changed such that tandem stack associations are formed, electromagnetic signals (pulsons) are created (Fig. 22 B at t = 2); whereas, when established magnetic field patterns are rapidly displaced in space, force effects manifest themselves between charges and the changing fields (C-Fig. 16). The latter response is a manifestation of Lenz’s Law. The objective of Blog 3-em is to associate formations and disruptions of facilitated electron drift mediated by the tandem stack to an electromagnetic signal such that it accounts for the utility of Maxwell’s model (Fig. 20-A) for electromagnetic radiation. Mobile electrons in the open circuits of Faraday’s (Fig. 21 A) and Hertz’s (Fig. 21 B) experiments before connection to the inducers are presumed to be in somewhat random motion, but perhaps more concentrated on the conductor’s surface where they move most readily (Fig. 22 B at t= 1 and Fig. 29). However, after the induction process when the switch, S, is closed, or the spark gap is negotiated, a connection is created between an electron deficit area and an area of electron excess. This initiates a net directional electron drift associated with the formations of tandem stacks. As electrons create tandem stacks, their criton swirls come together in sequential, parallel orientations with the same direction of rotation (Fig. 22 B). This alignment of the criton swirls is proposed to create a stabilizing force that enhances the duration of tandem stack associations and directional electron drift. The proposal is made that the negotiations of tandem stack formations result in pulson signals being emitted (Fig. 22 B at t = 2). This process of pulson emission differs from that created by an excited focal body as depicted in Fig. 1. (Excited focal bodies of electrons are proposed to be accountable for the visible electromagnetic signals associated with the spark gap.) The criton signals associated with tandem tack formations are emitted in a tangential manner associated with the criton swirl and perpendicular (polarized) to the direction of electron movement (Fig. 22 B at t = 2 and Fig. 22 C). As tandem stacks are created the pulson signals migrate outward from individual tandem stack formations with a creation sequence along the direction of current flow. In concert with tandem stack formations and pulson emissions is the establishment of a perpendicular orientation of criton swirls relative to direction of current flow. These swirl orientations create the magnetic field associated with directional electron movement (Fig. 22 B at t = 3 and Fig. 23). After the initial surge, the rate of formation of tandem swirls is reduced to a level associated with electron replacement for the battery driven process and thus the intensities of the pulson signal emissions are diminished to a very low level; whereas, the magnetic field surrounding the wire assumes a uniform pattern whose intensity is dictated by rate of current flow. The consequence of such stable patterns for the disposition of criton swirls surrounding a conductor in which a steady current is flowing are indicated in Fig. 23 and C-Fig. 6. If the circuit switch is opened (S in Fig. 21 A) the orientation of electrons facilitated by their tandem stacks allows a momentary continuance of directional electron flow that results in a build up of electrons at the original cathode end such that a reverse, oscillatory current of short duration is created. The change in direction of current also creates a brief interval of tandem stack formations that produce pulson emissions accompanied by reversal in the direction of tangential bias for emissions of critons that constitute the pulson signals (Fig. 22 C). It is also accompanied with a reversal in the orientation of the magnetic field surrounding the conductor. The reversed flick of the galvanometer when the switch (S) was opened that was observed by Faraday (Fig. 21 A) was in response to such a sequence of conditions, i.e. the induction of a reverse current in the secondary circuit. In an electrical circuit the creation of a magnetic field is associated with the direction of electron drift (Fig. 23 B-1). Therefore it is proposed that somewhat stable electrical circuits are created within the ferromagnetic core that account for the residual magnetism after its removal from the induction coil (Fig. 23 C). For a soft iron core, the electrical circuits of directional electron movement deteriorate after removal from the coil and its magnetic field deteriorates. Associated with creations of current loops, pulson signals are emitted during the magnetization process of a ferromagnetic cylinder as tandem stacks are formed within it (Figs. 23 B-2 and Fig. 22 B). These signals are proposed to form the bases for Barkhausen effect, which would be detected if the galvanometer of the secondary circuit for Faraday’s experiment (Fig. 21 A) were replaced with a very sensitive speaker. Under the conditions created by Hertz, the spark jumps are accompanied by more intense intervals of tandem stack creations and consequently more intense emissions of pulsons than for the apparatus utilized by Faraday. By controlling circuit parameters, both the intensity and frequency of pulson emissions may be controlled. Thus under conditions created by Hertz, pulson emissions resulting from tandem stack formations in the transmitter are associated with alterations in the directions of electron movement in the detector and hence alterations in the directions of the electric and magnetic fields. This coincides with field changes suggested for Maxwell’s model; however, the mechanism would be mediated by reversal of the processes noted in Fig. 22 B. Detection of the signal The creation of a sudden excess of electrons at one location within a conductor initiates facilitated electron drift mediated by tandem stack formations as the electron population attempts to negotiate a uniform distribution of charges. Associated with the process of tandem stack formations, pulson signals are emitted perpendicular to the translational direction of electron movement (Fig. 22 B at t = 2). The emitted pulsons carry a centrifugal bias related to the direction of electron flow (Fig. 22 C). The conditions indicated in Fig. 23 represent stable state conditions for magnetic fields after the interval of pulson emissions has passed, i.e. analogous to the situation of Fig. 22 B at t = 3. To understand the impact on electrons within a detection circuit consider the situation involving two parallel wires represented in Fig. 22 C that is analogous to Hertz’s experimental design (Fig. 21 B). Puslon signals arriving at the receiving (secondary) circuit exert an orientational effect on its mobile electrons. The orientational impetus is toward creating a translational movement of electrons in the opposite direction to those within the transmitter (Fig. 22 C), which in turn, is facilitated by the tandem stack effect (Fig. 22 B). Once the impulse of pulson signals from the primary circuit subsides, directional current flow in the secondary circuit may continue for a short interval creating conditions for electron build up in a dead end circuit such that a rebound current is possible. By tuning the parameters in the transmitter and receiver, enhanced signal transmissions of pulsons from the transmitter that manifest a particular frequency may be created resulting in an induced oscillating current in the receiver. This induced, oscillating current in the receiver is associated with de nova pulson emissions in tune with the oscillation frequency. After the inducing impetus from the primary circuit ceases, the oscillatory current in the secondary circuit decays into an equilibrium distribution among its electrons. In contrast to Hertz’s experimental design, an oscillatory current in the secondary of Faraday’s experiment must be driven by the pulson signals from an active oscillatory or pulsed current in the primary circuit; i.e. the secondary circuit of Faraday’s design does not have a dead end. Hence, it does not present the option to be enhanced utilizing an oscillatory current in the primary circuit that is in tune with the natural oscillation cycle of the secondary circuit. As a result of the iron ring, the sequence of events in Faraday’s experiment (Fig. 21 A) is more complex than that of Hertz’s (Fig. 21 B). In understanding observations, it is important to identify the position of the monitors in the sequence of interactions. The detection device renders a resultant of interacting forces for the interval of observation, and the sequencing of closely spaced events mediated by signals traveling at c is difficult. For example, the conditions in Fig. 23 for the magnetic field patterns represent the conditions after pulson signal creations associated with changing current states have subsided and a steady current has been established. Faraday’s experiment from the closing of the primary circuit at S until the second deflection of the galvanometer in the secondary circuit is proposed to have been mediated by and associated with the following interactions (A more definitive temporal sequence is presented below under Further elaborations and in Fig. 26 and Fig. 27.): 1. The closing of the circuit at S in Fig. 21 A creates a surge of tandem stack formations as directional electron drift is established in the primary coil (Fig. 22 B). During the short interval of tandem stack formations, pulson emissions occur from the primary coil that create the induction of a current in the secondary circuit (Fig. 22 B at t = 2 and Fig. 22 C) in a direction opposite to that of the primary inducing circuit. Hence, galvanometers in the primary (if there were one) and secondary circuits should tend in opposite directions immediately after the switch is closed. These events are mechanistically similar to those creating the initial electron surges in the primary and secondary circuits of Hertz’s apparatus. The responses of a galvanometer in the secondary circuit would lag the signal creating events of the primary circuit. [The adherence to Lenz’s Law for this situation is mediated by pulson signals. However, Lenz’s law is applicable to a situation where a magnetic field is moved relative to charges as described in C-Fig. 16. Emitted pulson signals are not necessary for the responses associated with Lenz’s Law; instead the criton swirls of a magnetic field are moving relative to the target charges and have an initial force advantage, as do pulson signals, from the approaching direction. From the perspective of relative movement of the instigating signal, mechanisms of interactions are essentially the same.] 2. When an iron core occupies the axis of the coil, it also experiences the pulson signals from the primary that induce an electron drift in the opposite direction to the current of the primary solenoid. This is not an option for Hertz’s experimental apparatus as presented in Fig. 21 B. Within a ferromagnetic core this creates a counter current flow (opposite to the pattern in Fig. 23 C-2 expressed when current subsequently becomes stable) that possesses an anti parallel angular momentum to that of the electron drift in the primary circuit (Fig. 22 C). The momentum surge associated with the event is proposed to be responsible for the Einstein-de Haas effect (Fig. 24). The secondary pulson emissions from the counter current within the iron core should work in concert with electron drift orientations for the current in the primary coil. This transient counter current also potentially creates a transient magnetic field. Under the experimental conditions of Faraday’s experiment (Fig. 21 A), the magnetic field contained within the permeable iron core of the torus would pass through the coil of the secondary circuit with an orientation opposite to that of the primary coil. This would create an enhanced effect on the induction of current within the secondary circuit induced by pulsons from the primary circuit compared to the situation where the two coils were communicating solely by pulson signals across free space (Fig. 27 at I = 5 versus Fig. 26 at I = 4) 3. After the initial surge of tandem stack formations that create pulson emissions from the primary circuit, the current in the primary settles into a uniform, constant pattern and the secondary pulsons from the counter current of the core cease (Fig. 22 B at t = 3). As this interval becomes dominant, the counter current within the iron core is reversed and the associated magnetic field adjusts accordingly; i.e. it is also reversed. (See #4.) The tandem stack formations and their associated pulson emissions originating in the primary coil are reduced to a low level and the dominant property associated with the uniform current is its dipolar magnetic field (Fig. 23). 4. As the magnetic field of the primary coil establishes itself as the dominant signal, as described for #3 above, it exerts an orientational effect on electron drift within the iron core that is counter to that previously induced by the pulson signals of the initial current surge in the primary coil. It is mediated by mutual swirl associations with the electrons that create the current in the coil (Fig. 23 D-2) and the magnetic field flux that is orientated along the axis of the primary coil (Fig. 23 B-2). The parallel, concentric paths of the induced circuits in the core and the current within the arc of the coil enhance the mutual swirl effect. A resultant overall magnetic field is created within the iron core as internal current circuits are induced (Fig. 23 C-2). It conforms to and works in concert with the field of the primary coil. The torus configuration of the iron core for Faraday’s apparatus reduces the external magnetic field as compared to the cylinder of Fig. 23 B. When the developing steady state magnetic field initially passes through the permeable iron core and enters the secondary coil, it encounters the electrons of the secondary coil either in or decaying towards random drift and its polarity would be opposite to that created by the current induced in the secondary coil (Fig. 27 at I = 6). Since the mutual swirl association between circuits, i.e. in the torus and and secondary coil, must overcome an initial repulsion impulse necessary to create the mutual swirl (C-Fig. 3 C-2 and C-Fig. 5 B-1), and after it has formed the electron drift of the secondary circuit can only remain parallel to its counterpart in the iron core, i.e. its multiple internal circuits, for a limited interval near the approach point (Fig. 23 C-2), the probability of establishing a sustainable current in the secondary coil is eliminated. [This line of reasoning suggest that “drag effects” might be enhanced where conductors were confined in a concentric pattern within a plane.] 5. When the primary circuit of Faraday’s apparatus (Fig. 21 A) is opened, the momentum of electron drift, enhanced by tandem stack associations, creates an electron buildup at the distal end from the source of electrons responsible for the current in the primary circuit. An oscillatory or reverse-current response is initiated that produces pulsons. Thus a galvanometer reading in the opposite direction to that when the primary circuit was closed is observed for the secondary circuit as an induced, reverse current is created. In contrast to when the primary circuit is closed, where the current would become continuous, when the circuit is opened the oscillatory current for the primary circuit would be transitory and a galvanometer inserted in the primary would probably only register a single flick as that of the secondary circuit. However, if the detector were sensitive enough, it might register multiple readings as the oscillation cycle decayed. Conditions within the secondary circuit of Faraday’s apparatus, since it is circular, do not possess a mechanism to create an oscillatory current. Hertz’s experiment represents an oscillatory response with a higher electron distribution potential than the device of Faraday (Fig. 21 B). After the initial spark, each subsequent spark indicates a reverse current episode. Summary Maxwell’s mathematical model is so utilitarian in its domain that it doesn’t prompt the urge to search for its physical essence. In the COM, the oscillating electromagnetic fields proposed by Maxwell (Fig. 20 A) are explained by the pulsons emitted when tandem stack formations are created associated with an alternating electron drift. Thus two mechanism for sources of electromagnetic radiation have been proposed: 1. Pulson emissions mediated by excited focal bodies (Fig. 1 and Fig. 20 B), and 2. Pulson emissions associated with tandem stack formations (Fig. 22 B at t = 2). Conditions can be created in which tandem stack emissions may be in phase at selected frequencies over extended intervals. Pulsons from excited macrons sources are of limited duration. Our experimental observations usually represent the interruption of some sequence of physical events. From the observations of apparently coupled events we make inferences about the intervening causal connections. Charges are conceptually pivotal in the phenomena of current, electric and magnetic fields, and electromagnetic radiation. Starting with a model for the electron, a summary for the proposed sequences of events that culminate in a current, magnetic fields, and electromagnetic radiations associated with the experimental designs utilized by Faraday and Hertz are presented. 1. Structure of the electron. The electron is a macron composed of a focal body surrounded by a criton swirl (Fig. 1, and C-Fig. 2 B and Fig. 22). Its orientation in translational motion presents a clockwise rotation for its swirl when the electron is approaching an observer. The magnetic field of the electron, as would be determined by an imaginary “micro” compass at rest relative to an electron, would be such that the magnetic north pole of the compass, points in the direction of rotation for the criton swirl of the electron. However, the structural pattern for the criton swirl of the electron is different from that of the reference magnet. (Compare Fig. 22 A with Fig. 23 B.) 2. Current. A current is established in a conductor when a sequence of electrons transverses a definitive path in the same direction over a time interval. When the path is linear the conductor exhibits a magnetic field surrounding the wire synonymous with that of electrons in translational motion (Fig. 22 A and Fig. 23 A). If the conductor is fabricated into a coil, it expresses the magnetic field of the reference ferromagnet when a directional current is passing through the coil (Fig. 23 B). As indicated in Fig. 23 D, the overall field is fabricated from and stabilized by mutual swirl negotiations. 3. Tandem stack associations and facilitated electron drift – the mechanism that separates current from the diffusional process. Electrons in close proximity moving in the same direction within a conductor, are inclined to form tandem stack associations (Fig. 22 B). As a result of its stability associated with force effects between in line, tandem swirls, directional electron drift is enhanced. Stability of the tandem stack is also a function of the condense matter in which the electrons are contained and it is more stable at lower temperatures. The tandem stack association is proposed to be the dominant factor in the stability of current loops in permanent magnets (Fig. 23 C) and during the process of superconductivity. Tandem stack formations enhance the electromagnetic force of electron drift such that as the degree of association of tandem stacks is strengthened electrons are able to pass through conductor segments possessing greater resistance. 4. Pulson emissions created during tandem stack formations. In the process of tandem stack formations, pulsons of single criton fronts are emitted perpendicular to the direction of electron movement, i.e. polarized and with a centrifugal bias relative to orientation of swirls (Fig. 22 C). This signal carries a code for how it will interact with electrons in a secondary circuit. Individual pulson emissions are of short duration. In the sequence for Faraday’s experiment the emissions events (Fig. 22 B at t = 2) are visualized as preceding the completion of the uniform magnetic field that is established associated with the primary conducting coil when the current becomes uniform (Fig. 23 B). 5. Intensity and frequency parameters. The intensity of a signal front, of the radio type signal, is a function of the number of tandem stack associations created during the short interval of pulson front formations. The frequency is keyed to the interval between such episodes of pulson creations. Thus an alternating current creates a sequence of pulson emission episodes that provides a frequency over which the experimenter has control. This contrasts with the pulsons emitted by a focal body as indicated in Fig. 1. Conventional lazar technology represents a technique that enables the lengthening of the pulson trains and increases the density of criton fronts associated with generated pulsons for high frequency pulsons originating with excited focal bodies. Free-electrons lazars, which have the widest frequency range of any lazar type, and can be tuned, ranging from microwaves to X-rays, appear to be consistent with a model where tandem stack associations of free electron beams are “wiggled”, or alternatively, the simultaneous excitation of the focal bodies of a population of electrons is created. 6. Impact of pulson signals from tandem stack formations on electrons in a secondary circuit. The emitted pulsons create an inducement of antiparallel electron drift (Fig. 22 C). The secondary current is also associated with tandem stack formations and pulson emissions, i.e. a secondary signal exhibiting an in sync lag relative to the primary signal. 7. Impact of pulson signals on electron drift in the iron core of the primary circuit. In the same mechanistic manner imposed on electrons in a secondary circuit under # 6 above, the pulsons induce a counter current in the iron core. This sudden induction of a counter current expresses itself as the Einstein-de Haas effect (Fig. 24). In association with the induction of such a counter current, secondary pulson signals are emitted and a temporary magnetic field, aligned in the opposite polarity to that subsequently developed by the primary coil, should be created in the iron core (Fig. 27 during I = 5). A microburst of current might enable the detection of the counter magnetic field for a ferromagnetic specimen. The conventional magnetic field is proposed to be established after the pulson signals associated with tandem stack associations have ceased. 8. The dominant effect of the primary current. After the initial burst of pulson signals, the magnetic field of the core settles into the pattern observed for the solenoid (Fig. 23 B). In contrast to creation of a current by pulson emissions, the orientations of electron movements within the core is mediated by mutual swirl formations. In order for the mutual swirl to be formed, the swirl patterns of electrons going the same direction must override the initial repulsion of the counter flow of their swirl patterns (C-Fig. 3 C-2 and C-Fig. 5 B-1). In contrast to the situation for the same directional current in parallel wires where the mutual orientations of the populations of the two wires are oriented in the same direction and stabilized by tandem stack associations, the drift orientations of electrons in the core are not initially aligned with those in the primary coil. However, after the magnetic field of the coil becomes established, it exerts an additional alignment impetus that increases the probability that the mutual swirl will form and enhances its stability after it has formed. Within the core in response to the circular current of the coil and its magnetic field passing through the core, the population of electrons negotiates domain patterns of current loops (Fig. 23 C-2) that enhance the overall magnetic field. When these current loops are stable, as for a ferromagnetic core, the core retains a magnetic field after isolation from the coil. 9. Removal of iron core from coil and its retention of a magnetic field. A proposal for the structure of current circuits within the core before and after removal from the primary coil must be consistent with its enhancement of the combined field while within the core and ferromagnetic field after removal. The current circuits just before the removal and after removal may not be the same. Prior to removal the impetus potentially favors larger current loops within the iron core. Considerable evidence suggests that magnets of ferromagnetic material are composites of smaller magnetic domains. The net result is that current circuits are stabilized in an arrangement that results in an overall magnetic field (Fig. 23 C-2). In contrast to ferromagnetic material, for a soft iron core, the induction of a magnetic field does not remain when the core is removed from the coil. 10. Comparisons of effects between a moving magnetic field (Lenz’s Law) and pulson signals relative to electrons in a conductor. An expression of Lenz’s law is manifested when stable magnetic fields, such as that provided by a coil with a steady current or a cylindrical ferromagnet, are moved relative to electrons in a conductor (C-Fig. 16). The manipulation creates a directional movement of oriented criton swirls toward the population of electrons within the conductor that induces directional electron drift. The induced flow of electrons is counter to the inducting current, which in turn creates a magnetic field that opposes the primary magnetic field. (A pattern of current loops as indicated in Fig. 23 C-2 is assumed to exist within the ferromagnetic cylinder.) The same type mechanism is in operation associated with pulson emissions, but is mediated by the emitted pulson signal from a source that may be stationary relative to target electrons. Compare C-Fig. 16 with Fig. 22 C. Further elaboration When Faraday’s apparatus (Fig. 21 A) is fabricated into a step up or step down transformer (Fig. 25) the ratios of current to electromotive force change based on the ratios of the turns in the primary to those in the secondary circuit. The electromotive force (volts) is directly proportional to the number of turns; whereas, the current (I) is inversely proportional to the number of turns (N), i.e. V2/V1 = N2/N1 =I1/I2. The conventional explanation utilized to account for these observations relies on the conversation of energy (wattage) where, neglecting losses, the input wattage and output wattage are always the same (Fig. 25). A more mechanistic approach is proposed utilizing the pulson concept. Temporal intervals of interacting parameters are utilized to account for the measurements associated with experimental observations noted in Figs. 21 A, Fig. 24 and Fig. 25. The objective is to divide the “instant” such as that associated with closing the switch and the flick of the galvanometer in Fig. 21 A into intervals. Two sequences of intervals are presented, one for conditions without a torus (Fig. 26) and one for conditions with a torus (Fig. 27). Since the intervals for the two sequences sometimes contain different processes, individual descriptions of micro intervals within sequences are presented with each figure and a discussion of the sequences relative to each other is presented below: A. Random electron drift. Dispositions of electrons within conductors prior to the induction of currents would be as indicated for Fig. 22 B at t = 1. {Starting point for Fig. 26 and Fig. 27 would be during I-1.} B. Current initiation and creation of primary pulson signals. A current is initiated in the primary circuits as pulses of electrons are released from a battery (Fig. 21 A) or a generator (Fig. 25). As the current develops, it executes the sequence indicated in Fig. 22 B, i.e. tandem stack formations, pulson emissions, and a steady current interval. The process of tandem stack formations exists within the primary coils for a limited interval. {Processes are concurrent for Fig. 26 and Fig. 27 during I = 2.} C. Induction of counter currents. During I-3 counter currents are induced within the iron core of the primary coil (Fig. 27 only) and in the secondary coils (Fig. 26 and Fig. 27) via the mechanisms of Fig. 22 C. The induction of counter currents in the iron core of the primary circuit (Fig 27 at t = 3) would manifest itself as the Einstein-de Haas Effect under the experimental conditions of Fig. 24. In the primary of Fig. 26 during I-3 the development of a magnetic field as indicated in Fig. 23 B-1 is initiated; whereas, the counter current within the torus of Fig. 27 during I-3 delays its expression. The movement of the galvanometer for Faraday’s experiment (Fig. 21 A) would be initiated with current induction in the secondary. {During I-3 the domain of the iron core of the torus for Fig. 27 becomes an interacting component such that signals not present in Fig. 26 are injected into the process.} D. Secondary pulson emissions. The first episode of secondary pulsons, originating with the first induction of a counter current within the iron core of the primary, possesses signals that work in conjunction with the direction of the current of the primary coil, i.e. the orientations of its criton swirls, while possessing a counter current induction tendency for electron drift toward the center of the primary iron core (Fig. 27 only, at I = 4). Pulson intensity would become weaker with subsequent generations of induced emissions that might arise in a concentric fashion toward the center of the core. For the secondary coil the induction impetus of its secondary pulsons would be to induce a counter current in the iron core associated with the secondary coil (Fig. 27 only, at I = 4). However, this impetus to induce a counter current within the iron ring at the secondary coil would be bucked by the impetus of the counter magnetic field of the primary core (Fig. 27 at I = 5) that is considered next under E. {Within the primary coil for Fig. 26 during I-4, the magnetic field is in the process of creating the stable magnetic field presented in Fig. 23 B-1.} E. Induction of counter magnetic flux. The induced counter current within the core of the primary circuit would have the potential to create a transient magnetic field counter to that expressed for the steady state condition that develops subsequently as indicated in Fig. 23 B-2. This counter magnetic field would work in conjunction with the induced current of the secondary circuit, enhancing it, and against the impetus of the pulsons from the secondary coil to induce a counter current in the core of the secondary (Fig. 27 at I = 5). {During I-5 for Fig. 26, the conditions within the secondary coil would result in the initiation of a transient magnetic field as for 23 B-1.} F. Dominance of coil currents after cessations of pulson signals. After pulson emissions cease the currents within circuits establish the magnetic fields as illustrated in Fig. 23 B via the mutual swirl interactions (Fig. 26 at I= 5 and Fig. 27 at I = 6). The coil with the greater number of turns creates a longer, more organized tandem swirl population. (Once mutual swirls are formed between electrons in the core and those of the coil they remain stable for intervals proportional to the length of their parallel tracks. Mutual swirls are also formed between the parallel paths of electron drift within the coils for Fig. 26 and Fig. 27 as indicated in Fig. 23 D-2) This phenomenon of longer tandem stack coupling is associated with an increased electromotive potential; i.e. the capacity of electron drift to negotiate a higher resistance such as in a voltmeter. However, the drag effect associated with the mutual swirl would slow down the translational drift of electrons, thus decreasing the rate of current flow in proportion to the number of turns for the respective coils. Mutual swirl associations within circuits (between parallel coil segments) and between circuits (coil and iron core) where coupled electrons negotiate conductors create an increased resistance to electron drift. These relationships are proposed to account for the current to electromotive potential indicated in Fig. 25 such that V2/V1 =I1/I2 = N2/N1. G. Decay of current in secondary coil. After the cessation of pulson signals from the primary coil, dissolution of tandem stack associations in the secondary coil occurs and electron drift approaches the random state in the secondary circuit, i.e. no current (Fig. 26 at I = 6 and Fig 27 at I = 7). This response is a result of the breakdown of tandem stacks confronting internal resistance and it is enhanced by the effects of the magnetic field created by the steady current as shown in Fig. 27 at I =6. The magnetic field from the primary, passing through the torus, opposes the magnetic field of the induced current of the secondary coil. After cessation of pulson signals from the primary circuit, there is no mechanism to regenerate tandem stack associations in the secondary coil. (As explained in #5 under Detection of the signal, when the switch, S, in Fig. 21 A is opened, a reverse current is created that initiates, for the opposite direction, the sequence of events indicated in Fig. 26 and Fig. 27. Hence the reverse flick for the galvanometer occurs.) Discussion Pulson emissions created during tandem stack formations have been proposed to account for the secondary effects on remote circuits when the currents within the primary circuits are initiated or reversed. Since the mediating signals originate from criton swirls their velocity is c. By controlling the frequency and number of current changes within a circuit, the frequency of criton fronts and pulson lengths may be controlled. Since the signals are a function of the alternations of electric and magnetic fields, they have been designated electromagnetic radiation. It would seem that the relationship c = 1/√μ0e0 involving permeability (μ0) and permittivity (e0) should trace back to the speed of criton swirls associated with the focal bodies of charges. The similarities between the responses produced by a steady magnetic field that is moved relative to a coil or circuit, i.e. Lenz’s law that induces a current in the secondary and the response of a secondary coil to the induction phase of a current in a primary coil can be explained utilizing the criton swirl. For Lenz’s law the magnetic field and thus an oriented criton swirl pattern are moving relative to the target circuit (C-Fig. 16); whereas when a current is initiated the process of tandem stack formations emits pulson signals that travel from the primary circuit to a secondary circuit (Fig. 22 C). Both processes impact the direction of electron drift creating counter currents. When the relative movement of the magnetic field stops or the emissions of pulsons ceases, the inductions of current in the secondary circuits are halted. Although the criton swirls have been proposed as a source of energy and electromagnetic radiation when manipulated appropriately, background questions arise: 1. How did the criton swirls get formulated? 2. Why is their speed c? 3. After emissions of critons how do the swirls get recharged and what is the fate of the emitted criton components? (It would seem that the after effects of solar storms could be mediated by configurations of criton chains fashioned from pulsons emissions.) These questions have been considered in the Criton oscillator Model (COM) < critonoscillator.com> and are to be elaborated upon in a future blog. An objective is to transition from the ultimate components (U. components) to the structure and property of charges and then to explanations of contemporary theories such that the apparent incompatibilities between theories that govern selected niches such as Huygens proposal (Fig. 4 C), Maxwell’s model for electromagnetic radiation (Fig. 20 A) and the photon phenomenon (Fig. 8) can be understood.

PC Blog 3-em waves [blackmon@pivotalconceptsinscience.com]

Introduction

Faraday conceived of lines of force, Maxwell’s equations were formulated, and Hertz’s experiments supporting Maxwell’s electromagnetic wave were conducted before the discovery of the electron. The model for electromagnetic radiation derived from Faraday’s experiments, associated with Maxwell’s work, is an influence composed of alternating electric and magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each other and propagated at c through space (Fig. 20 A). [But what, precisely, is it that is traveling and why at c? These questions are similar to pondering the composition of Huygens wavelets (Fig. 4 C). A graphical plot of a wave function as presented in Fig. 20 A is not a pictorial representation of the physical event to which it is applied.]

The focus of Blog 3 is a comparison of Maxwell’s model (Fig. 20 A) with the pulson model (Fig. 20 B) as the mediators of signals classified as electromagnetic radiation. Since the discovery of the electron and proton, the origins of currents, magnetic fields, electrostatic fields, and electromagnetic signals have been associated with charges.

Faraday’s Radio

Presented in Fig. 21 A is a representation of an apparatus utilized by Faraday to conduct a key experiment relevant to understanding electromagnetic radiation. When the switch, S, of the primary circuit was closed, a flick of the galvanometer needle was observed, indicating a momentary current in the secondary coil, C, at the instant when the current in the primary coil was turned on. Thereafter, the needle went back to zero. However, when the switch in the primary was open, a sudden deflection in the galvanometer occurred in the opposite direction. Thus, Faraday observed that the primary coil , A, could induce current in the secondary coil, C, only at the moment when current in the primary was changing. A steady current in the primary had no detectable effect on the secondary coil. Later experiments showed that although the iron core enhanced the intensity, it could be removed and the same responses obtained. The apparatus, usually recognized as a transformer, in Fig. 21 A is in essence analogous to an elementary wireless radio set. The galvanometer acts as the signal detector. (Within the observed sequence of events, what accounts for the differences in stimuli at the galvanometer?)

Hertz’s Radio

A schematic of the components of Hertz’s experiment (Fig. 21 B) in which he identified phenomena that supported the existence of Maxwell’s electromagnetic wave (Fig. 20 A) may be visualized as a variation of Faraday’s experiment presented in Fig. 21 A. An enhancement of the electro potential between the circuit sections separated by the small spheres was increased utilizing an induction coil until a spark was observed to jump the gap in the transmitter. [Until the spark jump occurs, manifestations of the electrostatic fields between the two spheres at the boundaries of the gap should resemble those represented in C-Fig. 7 A for two unlike separated charges.] When the spark discharges across the gap, it signals the sudden rush of electrons from one ball to the other, creating an excess of charge on the opposite side. There follows another discharge in the reverse direction and charges rush back and forth until equilibrium has been reestablished, at which time the induction coils creates another potential difference between the two spheres, repeating the process.

Under appropriate conditions the gap of a detection coil, fashioned as shown in Fig. 21 B, could be made to spark when the transmitter was in a sparking condition. [An oscillating, sparking series in the secondary circuit (transmitter) implies an alternating current associated with an alternating inducing signal that is transmitted to the detector.] By measuring the wavelength and frequency of the radiation, Hertz was able to determine its speed. It turned out to be c. This is the same speed Maxwell had predicted for his displacement wave (Fig. 20 A). Further manipulations reveal the phenomenon possesses properties like that of light, i.e. refraction, polarization, and reflection. [The associated visible electromagnetic radiation, i.e. the spark, is not the signal carrier between transmitter and receiver. However, its frequency (interval between sparks) indicates the frequency of the non visible, communicating signal. Given that both signals are electromagnetic radiations and associated with electrons, what is the explanation for their different frequencies?]

An enigma surrounds the mechanism creating the oscillation over shoots of electrons. Why do electrons continue to jump the gap after the initial point where equal numbers are present on each side of the circuit? For the experimental design of Fig. 21 B, would the average potential for each side after sparking had decreased, before the initiation of the next induction cycle, be neutral as it was before the initiation of the experiment, or do both sides of the transmitter become charged? If the induction coil of the secondary circuit could be instantaneously disconnected from the transmitter at the initiation of the sparking process, would it impact the duration of the sparking episodes?

Conductors and facilitated electron drift

Within the interstices of an isolated, non-magnetized conductor some of its electrons move among an array of positive charges tending toward a neutral distribution of charges. During the process, emitted signals, if they exist, are very weak with respect to devices currently utilized to detect electromagnetic radiation. However, if opposite ends of a conductor are connected to the terminals of a battery such that a conductive pathway is established between low and high concentrations of electrons, a facilitated movement of electrons occurs from the high concentrations toward the deficit electrode. The description, facilitated drift, is utilized because the enhanced, directional movements of electrons cannot be explained utilizing the typical diffusion process. Within COM, facilitated drift is associated with the formation of the tandem stack (Fig. 22) that is more stable at lower temperatures where conductivity is increased. Thus under parameters where the rate of diffusion would be decreased, directional electron drift is enhanced. Superconductivity occurs under conditions where the tandem stack associations should become stable (See G. Electrical and magnetic properties at low temperatures in V-II. Structures and Function Associated with the Electron and Proton of <critonoscillator.com>) and tandem stack associations have been proposed as the mechanism creating the stable current loops in super conductors and permanent magnets upon which their magnetic properties depend (Fig. 23 C-2 and C-Fig. 6 A&B).

As noted, the translational movement of free electrons is associated with a perpendicular circulation of their criton swirls such that a clockwise rotation would be observed as electrons approach the observer (Fig. 22 A). This orientation for swirl rotation has been proposed to account for the magnetic fields associated with current in a wire that settles into a uniform pattern where the direction of electron flow is held constant (Fig. 22 B at t = 3 and Fig. 23 A). When the conductor is fabricated into a coil, the reference magnetic field pattern of a magnet is created (C-Fig. 6 and Fig. 23 B). When a core of non-magnetized, ferromagnetic material is inserted within the coil it is immersed in the internal field of the coils. The core in situ acquires a polarity that matches that of the surrounding coil and it enhances the strength of the magnetic field (Fig. 23 B-2). When the core is removed it exhibits the properties of a magnet; i.e. its induced magnetic field is retained (Fig. 23 B-3). [As noted the magnetic fields of an electron and that surrounding a current carrying wire are structurally different from that of the reference magnet (Fig. 22 A, Fig. 23 and C-Fig. 6).

Nature of the signal associated with current induction

When electron drift patterns are abruptly changed such that tandem stack associations are formed, electromagnetic signals (pulsons) are created (Fig. 22 B at t = 2); whereas, when established magnetic field patterns are rapidly displaced in space, force effects manifest themselves between charges and the changing fields (C-Fig. 16). The latter response is a manifestation of Lenz’s Law. The objective of Blog 3-em is to associate formations and disruptions of facilitated electron drift mediated by the tandem stack to an electromagnetic signal such that it accounts for the utility of Maxwell’s model (Fig. 20-A) for electromagnetic radiation.

Mobile electrons in the open circuits of Faraday’s (Fig. 21 A) and Hertz’s (Fig. 21 B) experiments before connection to the inducers are presumed to be in somewhat random motion, but perhaps more concentrated on the conductor’s surface where they move most readily (Fig. 22 B at t= 1 and Fig. 29). However, after the induction process when the switch, S, is closed, or the spark gap is negotiated, a connection is created between an electron deficit area and an area of electron excess. This initiates a net directional electron drift associated with the formations of tandem stacks. As electrons create tandem stacks, their criton swirls come together in sequential, parallel orientations with the same direction of rotation (Fig. 22 B). This alignment of the criton swirls is proposed to create a stabilizing force that enhances the duration of tandem stack associations and directional electron drift.

The proposal is made that the negotiations of tandem stack formations result in pulson signals being emitted (Fig. 22 B at t = 2). This process of pulson emission differs from that created by an excited focal body as depicted in Fig. 1. (Excited focal bodies of electrons are proposed to be accountable for the visible electromagnetic signals associated with the spark gap.) The criton signals associated with tandem tack formations are emitted in a tangential manner associated with the criton swirl and perpendicular (polarized) to the direction of electron movement (Fig. 22 B at t = 2 and Fig. 22 C). As tandem stacks are created the pulson signals migrate outward from individual tandem stack formations with a creation sequence along the direction of current flow. In concert with tandem stack formations and pulson emissions is the establishment of a perpendicular orientation of criton swirls relative to direction of current flow. These swirl orientations create the magnetic field associated with directional electron movement (Fig. 22 B at t = 3 and Fig. 23). After the initial surge, the rate of formation of tandem swirls is reduced to a level associated with electron replacement for the battery driven process and thus the intensities of the pulson signal emissions are diminished to a very low level; whereas, the magnetic field surrounding the wire assumes a uniform pattern whose intensity is dictated by rate of current flow. The consequence of such stable patterns for the disposition of criton swirls surrounding a conductor in which a steady current is flowing are indicated in Fig. 23 and C-Fig. 6. If the circuit switch is opened (S in Fig. 21 A) the orientation of electrons facilitated by their tandem stacks allows a momentary continuance of directional electron flow that results in a build up of electrons at the original cathode end such that a reverse, oscillatory current of short duration is created. The change in direction of current also creates a brief interval of tandem stack formations that produce pulson emissions accompanied by reversal in the direction of tangential bias for emissions of critons that constitute the pulson signals (Fig. 22 C). It is also accompanied with a reversal in the orientation of the magnetic field surrounding the conductor. The reversed flick of the galvanometer when the switch (S) was opened that was observed by Faraday (Fig. 21 A) was in response to such a sequence of conditions, i.e. the induction of a reverse current in the secondary circuit.

In an electrical circuit the creation of a magnetic field is associated with the direction of electron drift (Fig. 23 B-1). Therefore it is proposed that somewhat stable electrical circuits are created within the ferromagnetic core that account for the residual magnetism after its removal from the induction coil (Fig. 23 C). For a soft iron core, the electrical circuits of directional electron movement deteriorate after removal from the coil and its magnetic field deteriorates. Associated with creations of current loops, pulson signals are emitted during the magnetization process of a ferromagnetic cylinder as tandem stacks are formed within it (Figs. 23 B-2 and Fig. 22 B). These signals are proposed to form the bases for Barkhausen effect, which would be detected if the galvanometer of the secondary circuit for Faraday’s experiment (Fig. 21 A) were replaced with a very sensitive speaker.

Under the conditions created by Hertz, the spark jumps are accompanied by more intense intervals of tandem stack creations and consequently more intense emissions of pulsons than for the apparatus utilized by Faraday. By controlling circuit parameters, both the intensity and frequency of pulson emissions may be controlled. Thus under conditions created by Hertz, pulson emissions resulting from tandem stack formations in the transmitter are associated with alterations in the directions of electron movement in the detector and hence alterations in the directions of the electric and magnetic fields. This coincides with field changes suggested for Maxwell’s model; however, the mechanism would be mediated by reversal of the processes noted in Fig. 22 B.

Detection of the signal

The creation of a sudden excess of electrons at one location within a conductor initiates facilitated electron drift mediated by tandem stack formations as the electron population attempts to negotiate a uniform distribution of charges. Associated with the process of tandem stack formations, pulson signals are emitted perpendicular to the translational direction of electron movement (Fig. 22 B at t = 2). The emitted pulsons carry a centrifugal bias related to the direction of electron flow (Fig. 22 C). The conditions indicated in Fig. 23 represent stable state conditions for magnetic fields after the interval of pulson emissions has passed, i.e. analogous to the situation of Fig. 22 B at t = 3.

To understand the impact on electrons within a detection circuit consider the situation involving two parallel wires represented in Fig. 22 C that is analogous to Hertz’s experimental design (Fig. 21 B). Puslon signals arriving at the receiving (secondary) circuit exert an orientational effect on its mobile electrons. The orientational impetus is toward creating a translational movement of electrons in the opposite direction to those within the transmitter (Fig. 22 C), which in turn, is facilitated by the tandem stack effect (Fig. 22 B). Once the impulse of pulson signals from the primary circuit subsides, directional current flow in the secondary circuit may continue for a short interval creating conditions for electron build up in a dead end circuit such that a rebound current is possible. By tuning the parameters in the transmitter and receiver, enhanced signal transmissions of pulsons from the transmitter that manifest a particular frequency may be created resulting in an induced oscillating current in the receiver. This induced, oscillating current in the receiver is associated with de nova pulson emissions in tune with the oscillation frequency. After the inducing impetus from the primary circuit ceases, the oscillatory current in the secondary circuit decays into an equilibrium distribution among its electrons. In contrast to Hertz’s experimental design, an oscillatory current in the secondary of Faraday’s experiment must be driven by the pulson signals from an active oscillatory or pulsed current in the primary circuit; i.e. the secondary circuit of Faraday’s design does not have a dead end. Hence, it does not present the option to be enhanced utilizing an oscillatory current in the primary circuit that is in tune with the natural oscillation cycle of the secondary circuit.

As a result of the iron ring, the sequence of events in Faraday’s experiment (Fig. 21 A) is more complex than that of Hertz’s (Fig. 21 B). In understanding observations, it is important to identify the position of the monitors in the sequence of interactions. The detection device renders a resultant of interacting forces for the interval of observation, and the sequencing of closely spaced events mediated by signals traveling at c is difficult. For example, the conditions in Fig. 23 for the magnetic field patterns represent the conditions after pulson signal creations associated with changing current states have subsided and a steady current has been established. Faraday’s experiment from the closing of the primary circuit at S until the second deflection of the galvanometer in the secondary circuit is proposed to have been mediated by and associated with the following interactions (A more definitive temporal sequence is presented below under Further elaborations and in Fig. 26 and Fig. 27.):

1. The closing of the circuit at S in Fig. 21 A creates a surge of tandem stack formations as directional electron drift is established in the primary coil (Fig. 22 B). During the short interval of tandem stack formations, pulson emissions occur from the primary coil that create the induction of a current in the secondary circuit (Fig. 22 B at t = 2 and Fig. 22 C) in a direction opposite to that of the primary inducing circuit. Hence, galvanometers in the primary (if there were one) and secondary circuits should tend in opposite directions immediately after the switch is closed. These events are mechanistically similar to those creating the initial electron surges in the primary and secondary circuits of Hertz’s apparatus. The responses of a galvanometer in the secondary circuit would lag the signal creating events of the primary circuit. [The adherence to Lenz’s Law for this situation is mediated by pulson signals. However, Lenz’s law is applicable to a situation where a magnetic field is moved relative to charges as described in C-Fig. 16. Emitted pulson signals are not necessary for the responses associated with Lenz’s Law; instead the criton swirls of a magnetic field are moving relative to the target charges and have an initial force advantage, as do pulson signals, from the approaching direction. From the perspective of relative movement of the instigating signal, mechanisms of interactions are essentially the same.]

2. When an iron core occupies the axis of the coil, it also experiences the pulson signals from the primary that induce an electron drift in the opposite direction to the current of the primary solenoid. This is not an option for Hertz’s experimental apparatus as presented in Fig. 21 B. Within a ferromagnetic core this creates a counter current flow (opposite to the pattern in Fig. 23 C-2 expressed when current subsequently becomes stable) that possesses an anti parallel angular momentum to that of the electron drift in the primary circuit (Fig. 22 C). The momentum surge associated with the event is proposed to be responsible for the Einstein-de Haas effect (Fig. 24).

The secondary pulson emissions from the counter current within the iron core should work in concert with electron drift orientations for the current in the primary coil. This transient counter current also potentially creates a transient magnetic field. Under the experimental conditions of Faraday’s experiment (Fig. 21 A), the magnetic field contained within the permeable iron core of the torus would pass through the coil of the secondary circuit with an orientation opposite to that of the primary coil. This would create an enhanced effect on the induction of current within the secondary circuit induced by pulsons from the primary circuit compared to the situation where the two coils were communicating solely by pulson signals across free space (Fig. 27 at I = 5 versus Fig. 26 at I = 4)

3. After the initial surge of tandem stack formations that create pulson emissions from the primary circuit, the current in the primary settles into a uniform, constant pattern and the secondary pulsons from the counter current of the core cease (Fig. 22 B at t = 3). As this interval becomes dominant, the counter current within the iron core is reversed and the associated magnetic field adjusts accordingly; i.e. it is also reversed. (See #4.) The tandem stack formations and their associated pulson emissions originating in the primary coil are reduced to a low level and the dominant property associated with the uniform current is its dipolar magnetic field (Fig. 23).

4. As the magnetic field of the primary coil establishes itself as the dominant signal, as described for #3 above, it exerts an orientational effect on electron drift within the iron core that is counter to that previously induced by the pulson signals of the initial current surge in the primary coil. It is mediated by mutual swirl associations with the electrons that create the current in the coil (Fig. 23 D-2) and the magnetic field flux that is orientated along the axis of the primary coil (Fig. 23 B-2). The parallel, concentric paths of the induced circuits in the core and the current within the arc of the coil enhance the mutual swirl effect. A resultant overall magnetic field is created within the iron core as internal current circuits are induced (Fig. 23 C-2). It conforms to and works in concert with the field of the primary coil. The torus configuration of the iron core for Faraday’s apparatus reduces the external magnetic field as compared to the cylinder of Fig. 23 B. When the developing steady state magnetic field initially passes through the permeable iron core and enters the secondary coil, it encounters the electrons of the secondary coil either in or decaying towards random drift and its polarity would be opposite to that created by the current induced in the secondary coil (Fig. 27 at I = 6). Since the mutual swirl association between circuits, i.e. in the torus and and secondary coil, must overcome an initial repulsion impulse necessary to create the mutual swirl (C-Fig. 3 C-2 and C-Fig. 5 B-1), and after it has formed the electron drift of the secondary circuit can only remain parallel to its counterpart in the iron core, i.e. its multiple internal circuits, for a limited interval near the approach point (Fig. 23 C-2), the probability of establishing a sustainable current in the secondary coil is eliminated. [This line of reasoning suggest that “drag effects” might be enhanced where conductors were confined in a concentric pattern within a plane.]

5. When the primary circuit of Faraday’s apparatus (Fig. 21 A) is opened, the momentum of electron drift, enhanced by tandem stack associations, creates an electron buildup at the distal end from the source of electrons responsible for the current in the primary circuit. An oscillatory or reverse-current response is initiated that produces pulsons. Thus a galvanometer reading in the opposite direction to that when the primary circuit was closed is observed for the secondary circuit as an induced, reverse current is created. In contrast to when the primary circuit is closed, where the current would become continuous, when the circuit is opened the oscillatory current for the primary circuit would be transitory and a galvanometer inserted in the primary would probably only register a single flick as that of the secondary circuit. However, if the detector were sensitive enough, it might register multiple readings as the oscillation cycle decayed. Conditions within the secondary circuit of Faraday’s apparatus, since it is circular, do not possess a mechanism to create an oscillatory current. Hertz’s experiment represents an oscillatory response with a higher electron distribution potential than the device of Faraday (Fig. 21 B). After the initial spark, each subsequent spark indicates a reverse current episode.

Summary

Maxwell’s mathematical model is so utilitarian in its domain that it doesn’t prompt the urge to search for its physical essence. In the COM, the oscillating electromagnetic fields proposed by Maxwell (Fig. 20 A) are explained by the pulsons emitted when tandem stack formations are created associated with an alternating electron drift. Thus two mechanism for sources of electromagnetic radiation have been proposed: 1. Pulson emissions mediated by excited focal bodies (Fig. 1 and Fig. 20 B), and 2. Pulson emissions associated with tandem stack formations (Fig. 22 B at t = 2). Conditions can be created in which tandem stack emissions may be in phase at selected frequencies over extended intervals. Pulsons from excited macrons sources are of limited duration.

Our experimental observations usually represent the interruption of some sequence of physical events. From the observations of apparently coupled events we make inferences about the intervening causal connections. Charges are conceptually pivotal in the phenomena of current, electric and magnetic fields, and electromagnetic radiation. Starting with a model for the electron, a summary for the proposed sequences of events that culminate in a current, magnetic fields, and electromagnetic radiations associated with the experimental designs utilized by Faraday and Hertz are presented.

1.Structure of the electron. The electron is a macron composed of a focal body surrounded by a criton swirl (Fig. 1, and C-Fig. 2 B and Fig. 22). Its orientation in translational motion presents a clockwise rotation for its swirl when the electron is approaching an observer. The magnetic field of the electron, as would be determined by an imaginary “micro” compass at rest relative to an electron, would be such that the magnetic north pole of the compass, points in the direction of rotation for the criton swirl of the electron. However, the structural pattern for the criton swirl of the electron is different from that of the reference magnet. (Compare Fig. 22 A with Fig. 23 B.)

2.Current. A current is established in a conductor when a sequence of electrons transverses a definitive path in the same direction over a time interval. When the path is linear the conductor exhibits a magnetic field surrounding the wire synonymous with that of electrons in translational motion (Fig. 22 A and Fig. 23 A). If the conductor is fabricated into a coil, it expresses the magnetic field of the reference ferromagnet when a directional current is passing through the coil (Fig. 23 B). As indicated in Fig. 23 D, the overall field is fabricated from and stabilized by mutual swirl negotiations.

3.Tandem stack associations and facilitated electron drift – the mechanism that separates current from the diffusional process. Electrons in close proximity moving in the same direction within a conductor, are inclined to form tandem stack associations (Fig. 22 B). As a result of its stability associated with force effects between in line, tandem swirls, directional electron drift is enhanced. Stability of the tandem stack is also a function of the condense matter in which the electrons are contained and it is more stable at lower temperatures. The tandem stack association is proposed to be the dominant factor in the stability of current loops in permanent magnets (Fig. 23 C) and during the process of superconductivity. Tandem stack formations enhance the electromagnetic force of electron drift such that as the degree of association of tandem stacks is strengthened electrons are able to pass through conductor segments possessing greater resistance.

4.Pulson emissions created during tandem stack formations. In the process of tandem stack formations, pulsons of single criton fronts are emitted perpendicular to the direction of electron movement, i.e. polarized and with a centrifugal bias relative to orientation of swirls (Fig. 22 C). This signal carries a code for how it will interact with electrons in a secondary circuit. Individual pulson emissions are of short duration. In the sequence for Faraday’s experiment the emissions events (Fig. 22 B at t = 2) are visualized as preceding the completion of the uniform magnetic field that is established associated with the primary conducting coil when the current becomes uniform (Fig. 23 B).

5.Intensity and frequency parameters. The intensity of a signal front, of the radio type signal, is a function of the number of tandem stack associations created during the short interval of pulson front formations. The frequency is keyed to the interval between such episodes of pulson creations. Thus an alternating current creates a sequence of pulson emission episodes that provides a frequency over which the experimenter has control. This contrasts with the pulsons emitted by a focal body as indicated in Fig. 1. Conventional lazar technology represents a technique that enables the lengthening of the pulson trains and increases the density of criton fronts associated with generated pulsons for high frequency pulsons originating with excited focal bodies. Free-electrons lazars, which have the widest frequency range of any lazar type, and can be tuned, ranging from microwaves to X-rays, appear to be consistent with a model where tandem stack associations of free electron beams are “wiggled”, or alternatively, the simultaneous excitation of the focal bodies of a population of electrons is created.

6.Impact of pulson signals from tandem stack formations on electrons in a secondary circuit. The emitted pulsons create an inducement of antiparallel electron drift (Fig. 22 C). The secondary current is also associated with tandem stack formations and pulson emissions, i.e. a secondary signal exhibiting an in sync lag relative to the primary signal.

7.Impact of pulson signals on electron drift in the iron core of the primary circuit. In the same mechanistic manner imposed on electrons in a secondary circuit under # 6 above, the pulsons induce a counter current in the iron core. This sudden induction of a counter current expresses itself as the Einstein-de Haas effect (Fig. 24). In association with the induction of such a counter current, secondary pulson signals are emitted and a temporary magnetic field, aligned in the opposite polarity to that subsequently developed by the primary coil, should be created in the iron core (Fig. 27 during I = 5). A microburst of current might enable the detection of the counter magnetic field for a ferromagnetic specimen. The conventional magnetic field is proposed to be established after the pulson signals associated with tandem stack associations have ceased.

8.The dominant effect of the primary current. After the initial burst of pulson signals, the magnetic field of the core settles into the pattern observed for the solenoid (Fig. 23 B). In contrast to creation of a current by pulson emissions, the orientations of electron movements within the core is mediated by mutual swirl formations. In order for the mutual swirl to be formed, the swirl patterns of electrons going the same direction must override the initial repulsion of the counter flow of their swirl patterns (C-Fig. 3 C-2 and C-Fig. 5 B-1). In contrast to the situation for the same directional current in parallel wires where the mutual orientations of the populations of the two wires are oriented in the same direction and stabilized by tandem stack associations, the drift orientations of electrons in the core are not initially aligned with those in the primary coil. However, after the magnetic field of the coil becomes established, it exerts an additional alignment impetus that increases the probability that the mutual swirl will form and enhances its stability after it has formed. Within the core in response to the circular current of the coil and its magnetic field passing through the core, the population of electrons negotiates domain patterns of current loops (Fig. 23 C-2) that enhance the overall magnetic field. When these current loops are stable, as for a ferromagnetic core, the core retains a magnetic field after isolation from the coil.

9.Removal of iron core from coil and its retention of a magnetic field. A proposal for the structure of current circuits within the core before and after removal from the primary coil must be consistent with its enhancement of the combined field while within the core and ferromagnetic field after removal. The current circuits just before the removal and after removal may not be the same. Prior to removal the impetus potentially favors larger current loops within the iron core. Considerable evidence suggests that magnets of ferromagnetic material are composites of smaller magnetic domains. The net result is that current circuits are stabilized in an arrangement that results in an overall magnetic field (Fig. 23 C-2). In contrast to ferromagnetic material, for a soft iron core, the induction of a magnetic field does not remain when the core is removed from the coil.

10.Comparisons of effects between a moving magnetic field (Lenz’s Law) and pulson signals relative to electrons in a conductor.

An expression of Lenz’s law is manifested when stable magnetic fields, such as that provided by a coil with a steady current or a cylindrical ferromagnet, are moved relative to electrons in a conductor (C-Fig. 16). The manipulation creates a directional movement of oriented criton swirls toward the population of electrons within the conductor that induces directional electron drift. The induced flow of electrons is counter to the inducting current, which in turn creates a magnetic field that opposes the primary magnetic field. (A pattern of current loops as indicated in Fig. 23 C-2 is assumed to exist within the ferromagnetic cylinder.) The same type mechanism is in operation associated with pulson emissions, but is mediated by the emitted pulson signal from a source that may be stationary relative to target electrons. Compare C-Fig. 16 with Fig. 22 C.

Further elaboration

When Faraday’s apparatus (Fig. 21 A) is fabricated into a step up or step down transformer (Fig. 25) the ratios of current to electromotive force change based on the ratios of the turns in the primary to those in the secondary circuit. The electromotive force (volts) is directly proportional to the number of turns; whereas, the current (I) is inversely proportional to the number of turns (N), i.e. V2/V1 = N2/N1 =I1/I2. The conventional explanation utilized to account for these observations relies on the conversation of energy (wattage) where, neglecting losses, the input wattage and output wattage are always the same (Fig. 25).

A more mechanistic approach is proposed utilizing the pulson concept. Temporal intervals of interacting parameters are utilized to account for the measurements associated with experimental observations noted in Figs. 21 A, Fig. 24 and Fig. 25. The objective is to divide the “instant” such as that associated with closing the switch and the flick of the galvanometer in Fig. 21 A into intervals. Two sequences of intervals are presented, one for conditions without a torus (Fig. 26) and one for conditions with a torus (Fig. 27). Since the intervals for the two sequences sometimes contain different processes, individual descriptions of micro intervals within sequences are presented with each figure and a discussion of the sequences relative to each other is presented below:

A. Random electron drift. Dispositions of electrons within conductors prior to the induction of currents would be as indicated for Fig. 22 B at t = 1. {Starting point for Fig. 26 and Fig. 27 would be during I-1.}

B.Current initiation and creation of primary pulson signals. A current is initiated in the primary circuits as pulses of electrons are released from a battery (Fig. 21 A) or a generator (Fig. 25). As the current develops, it executes the sequence indicated in Fig. 22 B, i.e. tandem stack formations, pulson emissions, and a steady current interval. The process of tandem stack formations exists within the primary coils for a limited interval. {Processes are concurrent for Fig. 26 and Fig. 27 during I = 2.}

C.Induction of counter currents. During I-3 counter currents are induced within the iron core of the primary coil (Fig. 27 only) and in the secondary coils (Fig. 26 and Fig. 27) via the mechanisms of Fig. 22 C. The induction of counter currents in the iron core of the primary circuit (Fig 27 at t = 3) would manifest itself as the Einstein-de Haas Effect under the experimental conditions of Fig. 24. In the primary of Fig. 26 during I-3 the development of a magnetic field as indicated in Fig. 23 B-1 is initiated; whereas, the counter current within the torus of Fig. 27 during I-3 delays its expression. The movement of the galvanometer for Faraday’s experiment (Fig. 21 A) would be initiated with current induction in the secondary. {During I-3 the domain of the iron core of the torus for Fig. 27 becomes an interacting component such that signals not present in Fig. 26 are injected into the process.}

D. Secondary pulson emissions. The first episode of secondary pulsons, originating with the first induction of a counter current within the iron core of the primary, possesses signals that work in conjunction with the direction of the current of the primary coil, i.e. the orientations of its criton swirls, while possessing a counter current induction tendency for electron drift toward the center of the primary iron core (Fig. 27 only, at I = 4). Pulson intensity would become weaker with subsequent generations of induced emissions that might arise in a concentric fashion toward the center of the core. For the secondary coil the induction impetus of its secondary pulsons would be to induce a counter current in the iron core associated with the secondary coil (Fig. 27 only, at I = 4). However, this impetus to induce a counter current within the iron ring at the secondary coil would be bucked by the impetus of the counter magnetic field of the primary core (Fig. 27 at I = 5) that is considered next under E. {Within the primary coil for Fig. 26 during I-4, the magnetic field is in the process of creating the stable magnetic field presented in Fig. 23 B-1.}

E.Induction of counter magnetic flux. The induced counter current within the core of the primary circuit would have the potential to create a transient magnetic field counter to that expressed for the steady state condition that develops subsequently as indicated in Fig. 23 B-2. This counter magnetic field would work in conjunction with the induced current of the secondary circuit, enhancing it, and against the impetus of the pulsons from the secondary coil to induce a counter current in the core of the secondary (Fig. 27 at I = 5). {During I-5 for Fig. 26, the conditions within the secondary coil would result in the initiation of a transient magnetic field as for 23 B-1.}

F.Dominance of coil currents after cessations of pulson signals. After pulson emissions cease the currents within circuits establish the magnetic fields as illustrated in Fig. 23 B via the mutual swirl interactions (Fig. 26 at I= 5 and Fig. 27 at I = 6). The coil with the greater number of turns creates a longer, more organized tandem swirl population. (Once mutual swirls are formed between electrons in the core and those of the coil they remain stable for intervals proportional to the length of their parallel tracks. Mutual swirls are also formed between the parallel paths of electron drift within the coils for Fig. 26 and Fig. 27 as indicated in Fig. 23 D-2) This phenomenon of longer tandem stack coupling is associated with an increased electromotive potential; i.e. the capacity of electron drift to negotiate a higher resistance such as in a voltmeter. However, the drag effect associated with the mutual swirl would slow down the translational drift of electrons, thus decreasing the rate of current flow in proportion to the number of turns for the respective coils. Mutual swirl associations within circuits (between parallel coil segments) and between circuits (coil and iron core) where coupled electrons negotiate conductors create an increased resistance to electron drift. These relationships are proposed to account for the current to electromotive potential indicated in Fig. 25 such that V2/V1 =I1/I2 = N2/N1.

G.Decay of current in secondary coil. After the cessation of pulson signals from the primary coil, dissolution of tandem stack associations in the secondary coil occurs and electron drift approaches the random state in the secondary circuit, i.e. no current (Fig. 26 at I = 6 and Fig 27 at I = 7). This response is a result of the breakdown of tandem stacks confronting internal resistance and it is enhanced by the effects of the magnetic field created by the steady current as shown in Fig. 27 at I =6. The magnetic field from the primary, passing through the torus, opposes the magnetic field of the induced current of the secondary coil. After cessation of pulson signals from the primary circuit, there is no mechanism to regenerate tandem stack associations in the secondary coil.

(As explained in #5 under Detection of the signal, when the switch, S, in Fig. 21 A is opened, a reverse current is created that initiates, for the opposite direction, the sequence of events indicated in Fig. 26 and Fig. 27. Hence the reverse flick for the galvanometer occurs.)

Discussion

Pulson emissions created during tandem stack formations have been proposed to account for the secondary effects on remote circuits when the currents within the primary circuits are initiated or reversed. Since the mediating signals originate from criton swirls their velocity is c. By controlling the frequency and number of current changes within a circuit, the frequency of criton fronts and pulson lengths may be controlled. Since the signals are a function of the alternations of electric and magnetic fields, they have been designated electromagnetic radiation.

It would seem that the relationship c = 1/√μ0e0 involving permeability (μ0) and permittivity (e0) should trace back to the speed of criton swirls associated with the focal bodies of charges.

The similarities between the responses produced by a steady magnetic field that is moved relative to a coil or circuit, i.e. Lenz’s law that induces a current in the secondary and the response of a secondary coil to the induction phase of a current in a primary coil can be explained utilizing the criton swirl. For Lenz’s law the magnetic field and thus an oriented criton swirl pattern are moving relative to the target circuit (C-Fig. 16); whereas when a current is initiated the process of tandem stack formations emits pulson signals that travel from the primary circuit to a secondary circuit (Fig. 22 C). Both processes impact the direction of electron drift creating counter currents. When the relative movement of the magnetic field stops or the emissions of pulsons ceases, the inductions of current in the secondary circuits are halted.

Although the criton swirls have been proposed as a source of energy and electromagnetic radiation when manipulated appropriately, background questions arise:

1.How did the criton swirls get formulated?

2.Why is their speed c?

3.After emissions of critons how do the swirls get recharged and what is the fate of the emitted criton components? (It would seem that the after effects of solar storms could be mediated by configurations of criton chains fashioned from pulsons emissions.)

These questions have been considered in the Criton oscillator Model (COM) < critonoscillator.com> and are to be elaborated upon in a future blog. An objective is to transition from the ultimate components (U. components) to the structure and property of charges and then to explanations of contemporary theories such that the apparent incompatibilities between theories that govern selected niches such as Huygens proposal (Fig. 4 C), Maxwell’s model for electromagnetic radiation (Fig. 20 A) and the photon phenomenon (Fig. 8) can be understood.